Augustin Iriarte Walton
Servicio Agricola y Ganadero
Av. Bulnes 140
Santiago, Chile

English translation May 1999 by Eric Yensen, Albertson College, Caldwell, Idaho

1. INTRODUCTION

The Andean cat (Oreailurus jacobita) is one of the most threatened and least known felid species in the world. The species was initially recorded in Chile by A. Philippi in 1891 from the locality of Dehesa in the foothills range of the city of Santiago (33° S latitude). In the last decade only a few individuals have been observed by scientists, all of them in the northern range of their historical geographic distribution. The species seems to be only present in remote areas of the South American altiplano, and with its areas of distribution highly fragmented. The population densities of the species are extremely low in the major part of its area of geographic distribution (Osgood, 1941; Miller and Rottmann, 1976; Melquist, 1984; Scrocchi and Halloy, 1986; Nowell and Jackson, 1996; Pacheco and Salazar, 1996).

Since it was initially recorded by A. Philippi from localities in the Central Region of Chile (in the area around Santiago), the Andean mountain cat has had a strong reduction in its area of geographic distribution, being detected presently only in the altiplano of Regions I to III: Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta, Copiapó and possibly Vallenar (29° S). The only report that would address the possible existence of populations of the species at higher latitudes is information provided by J. Rottmann that in 1977 hunters killed a specimen of O. jacobita in the area of Illapel in Region IV (32° S), but which could not be confirmed due to the fact that it was impossible to preserve the skin for later studies (J. Rottmann, personal communication).

In general, the information that we have about its presence is very scarce, counting a small number of skins and skulls in museum collections. In like manner, it is one of the few species of felids with which we have no experience with captive breeding, nor behavioral and ecological studies based upon medium or long term observations. In recent studies of the species based upon its genome, investigators found that it corresponded to a unique species and its genotypic characteristics had a close relationship with the genetic lineage of the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis). In effect, DNA samples from 4 skulls and 14 skins demonstrated that the Andean mountain cat is a species distinct from any other felid species, and its genetic material has its origin in some ancestor associated with the taxonomic group of the ocelot (Johnson et al., 1998).

On the other hand, some of the wild protected areas created in zones where the species currently lives in Chile are crucial for the survival of the species. Lauca and Volcán Isluga National Parks, the Vicuña National Reserve, and Salar de Surire Natural Monument are important areas with the effective presence of the species in the northern portion of its geographical distribution in Chile. In the southern areas of its distribution, the existence of Los Flamencos National Reserve and Llullaillaco and Nevado Tres Cruces National Parks permit preservation of rare examples of the species that are still inhabiting said areas. Finally, there are no records on the commercial utilization of the species in Chile. The Agricultural and Grazing Service (SAG) possesses some records of confiscation of pelts by employees of mining businesses, and the existence of mummified animals possessed by local inhabitants, the majority of them for utilization in festivities of a religious character.

2. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION

Included for a long time in the genus Felis, at the present it has been considered to be included in a distinct genus in which it is the unique species (Oreailurus). The principle reason for this is that in its tympanic or auditory bulla one notes a double chamber, which is unique in the mountain cat group of the New World (Kuhn, 1973; Wilson and Reeder, 1993; Wozencraft, 1993). Until now no subspecies have been described for the Andean mountain cat. Tympanic bullae of great size are typical of animals that live in habitats with sparse tree or shrub cover which require great auditory sensitivity for protection and security (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).

The Andean mountain cat or altiplano cat (Oreailurus jacobita) is the size of a large domestic cat, a little larger than the colocolo cat (Lynchailurus colocolo), a felid that lives in sympatry with the Andean mountain cat in almost all of its geographic range (Miller and Rottmann, 1976; Scrocchi and Halloy, 1986; Redford and Eisenberg, 1992). The few records have indicated an average weight of 5.5 kg (range 4-7 kg) (Osgood, 1943; Pearson, 1957; Miller and Rottmann, 1976; Redford and Eisenberg, 1992; Nowell and Jackson, 1996). As a protection against the rigorous climatic conditions of the altiplano (extreme dryness and low temperatures), the Andean mountain cat possesses a thick and dense pelt of generally light colors with dark markings in gray and brown tones. Its feet are voluminous, with the presence of thick pads and an average width of 3.5 cm and a length of 4 cm (Rottmann and Miller, 1976; Scrocchi and Halloy, 1986; Jim Sanderson, personal communication.) (Table 1).

The pattern of its spots is irregular, with areas of brown-orange coloration that extend from the neck to both sides of its back, and dark circular spots on its flanks. The ground color of its body is a cream white. On the other hand, in contrast with the coloration of almost all its body, the posterior part of the ears is dark gray. The length of the hairs on its back can reach 4 cm, and 3.5 cm on its voluminous tail. The tail possesses a series of seven to nine bands composed of dark gray lines with a dark brown center, its thickness in some cases reaching 10 cm, and normally represents 60-70% of the body length (head and body) (Osgood, 1943; J. Sanderson, personal communication) (Table 1). One large male confiscated by SAG personnel in the locality of Lirima (in the altiplano region of Iquique) had a 58 cm tail, with a head and body length of 92 cm (63%). On that occasion an adult colocolo cat of smaller size than the Andean mountain cat was also confiscated (Photo 1).

3. BEHAVIOR

The knowledge we possess of its feeding behavior is sparse and based on very few direct observations, feces or stomach contents. Its diet is considered to be based principally upon small and medium mammals such as viscachas (Lagidium viscacia), chinchillas (Chinchilla brevicauda and C. lanigera), and rodents of the genera Phyllotis, Chinchillula, Abrothrix, and Ctenomys. Before the period of intensive hunting of short-tailed chinchillas [sic] (Chinchilla lanigera) starting at the beginning of the Nineteenth Century (Iriarte and Jaksic, 1986 and Iriarte et al., 1997), probably said species constituted an important dietary item for the Andean mountain cat in almost all of its original distributional range (from Visviri on the border with Peru to the mountain ranges near Santiago). Medium and small birds and some species of reptiles constituted another important part of the diet.

Oreailurus jacobita is probably an opportunistic hunter like many species of small cats. Park rangers of the National Forestry Corporation (CONAF) that protect the National Vicuña Reserve observed an Andean mountain cat on the shores of a saline lake in the Salar de Japu basin (4300 m) trying to approach an area where there were some puna ducks (Anas sp.), coots (Fulica spp.) and Andean geese (Chloephaga melanoptera).

Likewise, the knowledge we have of its social system is very scarce. From the few records we have, we can surmise that its behavior is solitary and males maintain exclusive home ranges for one male and one or two females and their young. Their behavior is docile and tranquil. According to some accounts they permit humans to approach to close distances (Scrocchi and Halloy, 1986; Ziesler, 1992; J. Sanderson, personal communication). In 1980, two scientists in Argentina observed and followed an individual for more than two hours (Scrocchi and Halloy, 1986). It drank from an inlet, walked down a path, and later slept for some minutes.

In November of 1988, a German photographer (Günter Ziesler) took various photos of a juvenile which was found on a rocky slope behind the houses of the park rangers of the National Vicuña Reserve in the area of Salar de Surire (Ziesler, 1992). A large number of viscachas lived in the area, and were utilizing a bofedal [wet, marshy meadow] for food all year long. According to the personnel of CONAF, Andean mountain cats visit the area regularly to capture viscachas in the evening and morning (H. Blanco y Rojas, personal communication).

Finally, in theoretical estimations by Scrocchi and Halloy (1986) for a population of Andean mountain cats in northwestern Tucuman (Cumbres Calchaquies), they determined values of 0.6 kg/km², with which they estimated a density of one specimen for each 1000 hectares.

4. DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT PREFERENCE

As its name indicates, the species lives preferentially in areas of high elevation on both slopes of the Andes. It possesses an area of distribution very restricted in Altiplano areas of northwestern Argentina, northern Chile, southern Peru, and southeastern Bolivia. It seems the species has always had a low density in all of its geographic distribution. Historical indications that the species had higher populations at one time do not exist. Its preferred areas are rocky zone, without the presence of trees, and with extreme climatic conditions. The type locality of the species is in a zone of southwestern Bolivia with one of the most extreme climates in all of Bolivia. The majority of the specimens collected come from areas over 3000 m elevation [as far as I know, all of them do-EY], and include an area in Peru where a specimen was found at 5100 m elevation.

Possibly, it geographic distribution is not continuous, but perhaps the species utilizes all zones with the presence of prey in the Chilean Altiplano. According to the local inhabitants and personnel of CONAF the Andean mountain cat utilizes areas which have the following habitat variables in the same place: permanent wet meadows, rocky slopes, colonies of rodents such as viscachas, and aquatic birds.

The Aymara inhabitants possess very good knowledge, especially the persons that spend many hours per day as shepherds. Some persons of this ethnic group informed us that the presence of both species of mountain cats is habitual and relatively common. On the contrary, some persons that had lived for extensive periods in the zone had never observed any mountain cat. The information contained in this report was obtain through interviews with a specialist and local residents, and the scarce information that is found in the few articles on the species (Conservation Action Plan, IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group: Nowell and Jackson, 1996).

In general, prior information on its behavior are scarce. The most detailed information was provided by Argentine specialists from an area at an elevation of 4200 m in northwestern Tucuman Province, Argentina (Scrocchi and Halloy, 1986). An individual was followed on foot for more than two hours during the morning at a distance of no greater than 15 to 50 m, and it showed no fear of human presence. J. Sanderson and John Wagenknecht had a similar experience in the Salar de Surire area in Chile. In the case in Argentina, the individual drank water in an area where snow was melting and later sat on a prominent rock. Furthermore, the animal aggressively displaced a gray fox (Pseudalopex griseus) that passed by the sector. Finally the animal left the area where the investigators found it, and went to a shady area of rocky slope and finally disappeared (Scrocchi and Halloy, 1986).

4. METHODS

First, the scarce information on the species in various specialized journals and books was analyzed. Second, the locations of specimens encountered by scientists or persons who know the species were analyzed for the last 40 years (since 1960). Due to the important changes the ecosystems and potential prey populations have suffered and because of an important increase in mining and grazing, it was not considered appropriate to work with records of the presence of the species which antedate 1960. The visits to the distinct study areas are detailed below:

• Two visits to the Altiplano of Region I (see Maps 1 and 2). The first of these was of only two days and consisted of making contacts with park guard personnel of CONAF and converse with some local residents of the villages of Parincota and Putre. The second was for four days and 15 villages were visited and 92 persons interviewed. Victor Valdivia, a professional of the regional SAG who knows the Altiplano zone very well, participated in all of them. These two visits were the only ones to the zone, but our group has been conducting studies in the area for three years to determine the genetic relationships between distinct groups of cats that live in Chile. During this entire period we have interviewed local residents, personnel of public agencies, and park rangers of CONAF. These genetic studies have been done as part of a program of investigation led by Warren Johnson of the National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, USA.

• The third visit to the terrain was a reconnaissance of the Altiplano of Region II (Antofagasta) (Map 3). On it, the northern and central area of the zone were visited in three days. On this visit I had the collaboration of two professionals of SAG who knew the zone well (Mr. Rene Kurte and Hibert Martínez) and a biologist of the La Escondida Mining Company (Mr. Mario Parada). This latter specialist had worked in wildlife research in the area for more than 20 years and is presently doing studies on the ecology of the culpeo fox (Pseudalopex culpaeus) by means of radio telemetry in the Salar de Punta Negra. Up until that time he had captured 8 animals, and is hoping to be able to capture in the future mountain cats with the help of special attractors.

• On the fourth visit to the area I passed through the central and southern portions of the Altiplano of Region II (Map 3). During this visit I traveled through the principal villages of the zone (San Pedro de Atacama, Toconao, Peine, and Socaire) and visited the area where the CONAF park rangers of Los Flamencos National Reserve and the Wildlife Research Center of the La Escondida Mine (Salar de Punta Negra).

• On the sixth [sic] trip diverse zones of the Altiplano of Copiapó (Region III; 800 km north of Santiago; Maps 4 and 5) were visited. In general, in this zone one observed few people living in the area, for which reason the only interviews were with villagers of the foothills canyons and personnel of CONAF that protect the recently created Tres Cruces National Park. Two years ago, a goat breeder that lived in the zone for a long time told me that he saw a large cat with rings on the tail in the area of Santa Rosa Lake, an area presently included in Tres Cruces National Park. This area, as much as the area around Salar del Negro Francisco could be the southernmost areas in Chile that possess the Andean mountain cat.

Finally, according to different experts and prior information from the local inhabitants, it is highly improbable that populations of the species currently exist in areas south of the 28°S parallel or in Region IV (Map 5). It seems that the species has been extirpated in Region IV for at least 40 years, now that specimens have not been detected in their ecosystems by experts and local residents since the 1960s (Melquist, 1985; J. Rottmann, personal communication). The largest number of chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera and C. brevicauda) were extracted from this zone, and destined for markets in the United States and Europe for a century (1815-1915), bringing them almost to complete extinction (Iriarte and Jaksic, 1986).

5. RESULTS

5.1 GENERAL REMARKS

The two species of Altiplano mountain cats have been well known to local inhabitants belonging to Aymara and Quechua ethnic groups for a long period of time. Within the Aymara tradition, both species are part of their religious beliefs, playing an important role in festivities that are carried out every year in the month of February. Both species are called by numerous names. In Aymara they are known as titi (Andean mountain cat) and abatire (colocolo cat) (Table 1). In the Quechua language O. jacobita is called chinchay or osjo. Persons of both cultures that pass an important part of their time caring for camelids or sheep are especially accustomed to encounter specimens of this species. A large number of the ethnic Aymara herders interviewed could clearly distinguish to which species a detected individual mountain cat belonged. Their criteria for distinguishing Andean cats were mainly their larger size and longer tail with prominent rings. As much from the observations of the shepherds as from the pelts kept for festivals, one observes a marked inequality in population numbers with the colocolo cat being much more abundant.

5.2 FIRST FIELD TRIP

In our first field trip we had the opportunity in only three days to travel through the principle areas in the northeastern portion of the Altiplano of Region I where the principle observations of both species of mountain cats have been described (Map 1).

In this visit to the area, we had the opportunity to make contact with four park rangers of CONAF who work in wild protected areas of the Altiplano of Region I: Lauca National Park (137,883 ha), Las Vicuñas National Reserve (209,131 ha), Salar de Surire National Monument (11,298 ha), and Volcán Isluga National Park (174,744 ha) (Figure 1). Furthermore, we had the opportunity to visit the localities and villages of Putre, Pacollo, Coronel Alcérreca, Ancolacani, Nasahuento, Caquena, Parincota, paso fronterizo del lago Chungará, Chucuyo y Las Cuevas. Furthermore, we had the opportunity to talk to cattlemen in the Caquena sector, the largest grazing area in the Chilean Altiplano, and perhaps one of the zones with the highest concentration of viscacha colonies in all of Region I. As a consequence of the former, in the area we regularly observed specimens of both species of mountain cats.

On this trip, we had the opportunity to become informed on the vast knowledge that the Aymara inhabitants of the area possess about the two species of cats. Due to the fact that this people use both species as important elements in religious types of rituals, they are competent to recognize with which species they are dealing. During the marking festivities (marking of domestic camelids born during the previous year) in the middle of the month of February each year, they dance with hides or taxidermy specimens of both species on their backs. In addition, we discovered that in almost every house of families of the Aymara population that continue said rituals they possess mountain cats. Even the close relatives of the park rangers of CONAF possess this type of ritual elements.

The chief of the park rangers, Mr. Carlos Nazar, supplied two photos of a pair of juvenile colocolo cats that was taken in a cave near the road in the vicinity of the ceremonial village of Isluga (3900 m elevation) in the previous summer (January 1998). In later visits to the area, we were not able to identify exactly the area where the two photos were taken (Photos 2 and 3).

5.3 SECOND FIELD TRIP

Every year on June 24 in the village of Putre (3500 m elevation) there is a festival called the "Fiesta de Titi." In this, the local inhabitants of Aymara descent dance with elements coming from mountain cats (they utilize both species). A resident of the locality (Mr. Sebastian Vilca) told us that well yes, now few participate in the festival, although there are various families that possess skins and preserved specimens and that they utilize them in diverse occasions all year long.

In a remote area in the Altiplano of Arica called Misitune (4300 m elevation) we had the opportunity to converse with Mr. Angel Paco Villalobos. He showed us seven skins of mountain cats, only one belonged to O. jacobita and the six remaining to L. colocolo (Photo 4). The majority were relatively old, in spite of being in the climatic conditions of the zone, said type of products do not easily deteriorate and last for many years in optimum conditions. Mr. Paco told us that probably some of them were more than 20 or 30 years old. The specimen of the Andean mountain cat was the most recent, although due to my position as wildlife inspector for the Chilean government he did not want to tell me when it had been hunted (surely it was hunted two years ago). The condition of the skin was very good and flexible.

In Ancuta (4350 m elevation), Mr. Asencio Jimenez possessed a well conserved skin of O. jacobita. The small village is located in the vicinity of the Caquena area. He did not give us the possibility to take a photo of the skin nor less take measurements nor a small tissue sample, as had been our wish. At some 5 m distance we had the opportunity to observe some marked dark rings on a tail of great size.

In the village of Caquena we conversed with Mr. Severino Lluncos Yusra. He showed us five (5) skins of mountain cats: two O. jacobita and three L. colocolo. We could only photograph two of them, a colocolo and an Andean mountain cat (Photo 5). Mr. Lluncos told us that, according to ancient Aymaran customs, that each time a person detects a mountain cat in the field it is necessary y even imperative to trap and kill it. If the person succeeds in trapping it, he will have a year of good luck and long term recognition now that he can dance with the skin in all the festivals, obtaining important social recognition. If he is not successful in capturing and killing it, he would have a year of bad luck. This belief was confirmed later by a great number of Aymara inhabitants of the Chilean Altiplano.

In Guallatiri (4200 m elevation) two persons possessed skins of mountain cats: Mr. Porfirio Sánchez and Benjamin Mamani. Both skins were of L. colocolo.

Three park rangers who work in the Surire National Monument (Mr. Humberto Cespedes, Ernesto Muñoz, and Leonardo Choque) informed us that they saw an individual of an Andean mountain cat in the area of Salar de Japu (4300 m elevation) in the proximity of the border with Bolivia in August 1997. The observation was at 3:00 in the afternoon, and the cat was trying to approach a group of aquatic birds that were found in the water of the salt lake: coots, ducks, and Andean geese. They had the opportunity to take some photos of the specimen, but unfortunately they informed us that the photos did not come out well because of the rapid movement of the cat after it was detected. Thus the photos had no possibility of turning out.

Without any room for doubt, the area with the highest number of observations of mountain cats in the Chilean Altiplano is in the vicinity of the guard station of CONAF in the proximity of Salar de Surire (4700 m elevation). In said place exists a cliff with a large colony of viscachas and a wet meadow nearby where these rodents can feed. The park rangers that live here can always observe examples of L. colocolo and O. jacobita, as frequently in the early hours of the morning as at dusk. In November 1988, the German photographer Günter Ziesler had the opportunity to photograph a juvenile specimen in said zone (Ziesler 1992).

In the same way, some park rangers photographed a specimen, apparently adult, near the colony (Photo 6). In this photo one can observe the characteristic dark, horizontal band at the level of its eyes. Similarly, at some 500 m from the cliff, J. Sanderson and his team had the opportunity to observe and film a video of an adult O. jacobita for more than 10 minutes. The beautiful specimen was not worried about the presence of the researchers and stayed at less than 10 meters without making any movement to escape. Likewise, park rangers of CONAF of this same area photographed in June 1998 a robust specimen of L. colocolo in the vicinity of the area where the video of the Andean mountain cat was taken (Photo 7). They were able to observe this specimen below a cave and saw the characteristic bands on its hind feet and the typical ochre color of a colocolo cat.

In the tiny village of Chucuyo (4200 m elevation) located on the international highway between Arica (Chile) and La Paz (Bolivia), a woman named Matilda had a juvenile Andean mountain cat in captivity for three months in 1996. Unfortunately, the specimen, that seemed no more than a few weeks of age, died as a product of deterioration, surely from the precarious conditions of captivity and lack of key elements in its diet, such as calcium. Witnesses informed us of deformities in its posterior extremities, a clear diagnosis of lack of calcium: osteoporosis.

In Enquelga (3800 m elevation), a small village on the Altiplano of Iquique, an old villager, Mr. Ambrosio Condori, showed us two preserved colocolo cats: an adult specimen of appreciable size (Photo 8) and a smaller one (Photo 9). Also in Enquelga, Mr. Apolinario Castro Flores possessed two other preserved colocolo cats. In Photo 10 only appears one of them, probably a juvenile specimen.

As was explained earlier, in the surroundings of the ceremonial village of Isluga (3900 m elevation), two park rangers were able to photograph two juvenile specimens of a colocolo cat in a cave near the road (Photos 2 and 3). Said record was in November of 1997 at 12:00 am [=noon]. In a visit to the area we observed that the zone corresponded to a canyon some 8 km long, with permanent water, bofedales with abundant grazing areas on the margins and the continuous presence of talus slopes [? - rocky areas in any case] of 10 or meters on its slopes: an ideal habitat for the presence of abundant colonies of viscachas and other rodents, and subsequent existence of mountain cats.

Based upon diverse interviews we could confirm that the Chilean Altiplano during the festivities of the "Señalada" in the second week of the month of February (every year the date of the festival changes) the Aymara inhabitants use the specimens as "attractors" of good luck for their harvests and reproduction of their domestic camelids [llamas and alpacas]. In these fiestas they mark the domestic animals with tassels of colored wool. They begin the first Thursday with the day of the Compadre and finish with the day of the Comadre (following Thursday). [ A compadre is someone who is the godfather of your child.] During these days of celebration, they take out the specimens they possess the majority of which were collected by their families a long time ago and dance with them on their backs. They give them to their mouths alcohol to "drink" and grains of corn or quinoa to "eat" with the object of making them participate in the celebrations.

Once the fiestas are over, they hang wool [tassels?] and alpaca (Lama pacos) and llama (Lama glama) fetuses in their interior [presumably of their houses] with the object that their cattle have better reproduction for the year that recently began, and with grain and animal fat in order to have more food in the family.

To continue, the principle facts relative to the Aymara festivities where skins and preserved mountain cats are used are detailed:

• The participants dance for seven (7) consecutive days.

• During the first Thursday (day of the Compadre) they take out their cats to the streets, hanging threads of colors in their ears, which identify their owners.
• Some are utilized to obtain better harvests and others to have better cattle [camelid] reproduction.
• They dance with the skins on their backs and give them grains to "eat" and alcohol to "drink."
• The specimens are ceremonially guarded [or cared for] in an alpaca shawl for the rest of the year, or until they are produced for another celebration. On the inside of the shawl they hang leaves of coca, alpaca and llama fetuses, grains of cereals, small anthropomorphic figures of small size, etc.
• The owner of the skins is given the honor of dancing in the center of the dancers and leads the processions.

The average head and body length of four specimens of O. jacobita measured in this study was 63.3 cm, and their tails 38.5 cm (probably all were not adults, for which the measurements could be small in relation to the those in the literature). The average length of the front legs was 18.5 cm (measured from the beginning of the chest), and the average length of the front legs was 13.2 cm. In the case of the 14 specimens of L. colocolo, the head and body length was 56.5 cm and tail 25.5 cm. The average of the front legs was 14.3 cm.

Finally, according to diverse interviews with locals, we discovered that the strong introduction in the zone of churches of evangelical character had brought about a decrease in the use of this type of festivities. The persons that adopt these new beliefs give away their taxidermy skins and speak badly of persons that continue practicing these traditions. One can appreciate a strong conflict between the communities that continue adapted to the "Catholic-traditional culture" customs and the "evangelicals." This introduction of new beliefs could be good news for the survival of the rare populations of altiplano cats in this region.

5.4 THIRD FIELD TRIP

On our third visit to the study areas, we visited the central and northern portion of the Antofagasta Altiplano (Region II). We carried out this visit with Mr. Rene Kurte, who has worked in the Agricultural and Grazing Service of the Region for more than 10 years, and knows the area very well. It is important to mention that the local inhabitants are of Atacamenan origin and not Aymara, unlike the case of Region I (Maps 2 and 3).

We visited seven villages and localities in the zone, in which we had the opportunity to interview some 15 local inhabitants. In the villages of Chiu Chiu (2525 m elevation) and Ollagüe (3696 m elevation) we conversed with locals who told us that mountain cats were more abundant in the past. They were unable to tell us which type of cat it was. Only in the small village of Cosca (4150 m elevation), a village that utilizes them in ceremonies and is located very close to the border with Bolivia, we found a colocolo cat preserved and wrapped in a ceremonial manta (shawl). The specimen was an adult male of appreciable size and belonged to the only permanent resident of the village (Mr. Eusebio Urelo). The specimen we observed is utilized for the religious festivities of "San Sebastian" every January 24 (Photo 11). This same person possessed four puna armadillos (Chaetophractus nationi), a species considered in danger of extinction and extremely rare in the rest of the Chilean Altiplano, but it seems, common in the area of Cosca.

Also, we had the opportunity to converse with the Biological Specialist in Wildlife, Mr. Mario Parada, who is currently directing a project for the protection of the three species of flamingos in the zone. He told us that three of his helpers observed a mountain cat, apparently L. colocolo because the area was "only" 2800 m elevation and they did not remember having observed a large tail. The specimen was observed at 6 am in the vicinity of the biological station at Salar de Punta Negra. This group of investigators were themselves carrying out studies on radiotelemetry on the culpeo fox (Pseudalopex culpaeus). They now have eight (8) foxes with radio collars and never have captured, nor seen, a mountain cat in the zone since the study began seven years ago.

5.5. FIFTH VISIT TO STUDY AREAS

On this trip, 1200 km were traversed through all of the central and southern altiplano areas of Region II (Map 3). On this visit, we traveled the two international highways that connect Chile with the Argentine provinces of Jujuy and Salta (Jama and Sico passes). Due to the extreme climatic conditions prevailing in the Jama Pass zone, we did not observe local inhabitants. We only had the opportunity to converse with personnel of companies that were paving the road and no one had spent much time in the zone. On the other route (Sico Pass), we had the opportunity to converse with various residents of the localities of San Pedro de Atacama, Toconao, Compañia, Socaire, Peine, Poblado Minsal, and the CONAF guard station at Salar de Atacama.

Apparently the only records of mountain cats in the zone correspond to colocolo cats. In October 1997, a group of investigators of the University of Chile captured an individual adult colocolo cat in bad physical condition in the vicinity of the village of Socaire. Unfortunately, the specimen died in a few days and it is currently frozen in the facilities of the Faculty of Medicine of said university.

5.6. SIXTH VISIT TO STUDY AREAS

On our sixth visit to study areas, we had the opportunity to travel through diverse altiplano areas of Region III of Chile with local SAG personnel (Agronomist Engineer José Andaur). On the first visit we traveled diverse areas that surrounded Salar de Negro Francisco in the Cordilleran zone of the Province of Copiapó. On the trip out we conversed with diverse local residents about the presence of mountain cats in the area. One of them informed us of the capture and death of a male specimen of a colocolo cat some 8 months ago on some cliffs near his house (2500 m elevation). He still had the pelt, which was a typical adult specimen of the species with dark bar marks on its front legs (Maps 4 and 5).

Very few people inhabit the area. Usually it is used as a pasturing area during summer, for which reason it is found uninhabited in the winter. Only a few families live in small valleys with irrigation and one observes the presence of mining prospectors and small herds of goats.

Probably one can find Andean mountain cats in the recently created Tres Cruces National Park, especially in the Laguna Santa Rosa and Salar del Negro Francisco sectors, due to the existence of zones with abundant viscachas and extensive areas with bofedales [wet meadows] with a high density of aquatic birds and rodents.

5.7. INTRODUCTION TO THE APPENDICES

In later visits to the study area made by Mr. José Luis Galaz to Lake Huambune, located to the north of Volcán Parincota in the Altiplano of Region I, he discovered two mountain cat skulls 8.5 and 8.0 cm long, respectively. They were found in the vicinity of a bofedal near the lake. In a more extensive examination of the skulls one could identify the species to which they belong and estimate the age.

Likewise, Mr. Jim Sanderson in December 1998 acquired in the village of Parincota two preserved specimens of mountain cats: an Andean mountain cat and a colocolo. Furthermore, the chief of Police of the Salar de Surire area observed a juvenile specimen of a colocolo cat with a green, red, and blue wool tassel in its ears; it was very old (probably more than 20 years of age). [Presumably this is a taxidermy specimen like those I have seen and collected in Bolivia.]

Mr. Juan José Anabalón, the biologist for the Collahuasi Mining Company, captured a specimen of an adult colocolo cat near Salar de Coposa (4150 m elevation) in November 1998 (Photos 12 and 13). The specimen possessed a coloration typical of the species, but with dominant gray tones. The specimen was liberated in the same place it was captured after a few minutes. Likewise, in Spetember 1998, the same team of specialists captured and released an unidentified mountain cat in the vicinity of the village of Copaquiri (3700 m elevation) on the route connecting Iquique with Salar de Coposa.

5.8. PRESENCE IN OTHER REGIONS

Due to a series of interviews of specialists and personnel of government agencies involved with wildlife conservation and administration of protected areas (CONAF), it is estimated that it is very improbable that the Andean mountain cat is currently present south of the 31°S parallel (Vallenar) (Map 5).

Nevertheless, there exist three confirmed records of the species south of the 31°S parallel , but all correspond to historical records prior to the massive exploitation of chinchillas and viscachas that occurred in these regions toward the end of the last century and the beginning of this one (Iriarte and Jaksic 1986, Iriarte et al. 1997).

On the other hand, in this zone there has been a strong reduction in the areal extent of altiplano ecosystems, with a decrease in bofedal and saline lake habitats above 4000 m elevation.

The unconfirmed records alluded to by Melquist (1985) for areas below 3000 m elevation in the La Serena (30°S) and Illapel (32°S) areas probably were specimens of Lynchailurus colocolo. In a conversation with Mr. Jurgen Rottmann, he told us that neither of the two records cited by Melquist (1985) were confirmed. For neither of these records were there skins obtained, nor could any specialist see the remains of the specimens. In my opinion, probably both records correspond to colocolo cats.

5.9. MAPS OF THE STUDY AREAS.

Below it is possible to observe five maps that cover all the area of the present study. Map 1 shows the altiplano region of Arica and Pisagua, Map 2 covers the Andean zone for Iquique to Tocopilla, Map 3 show the altiplano zone of Antofagasta, Map 4 presents the cordilleran region of Paposo and Caldera (Region III), and finally, Map 5 shows an extensive zone from Copiapó (Region III) to the valley of the Aconcagua River (Region V), all areas where specimens of Andean mountain cats have been detected in the last 150 years in Chile (Miller and Rottmann 1976, Scrocchi and Halloy 1986).

On these maps, the bold black lines are the principal routes traveled by our team with the object of tracking down the areas with probable highest presence of mountain cats.

The maps emphasize the zones where we have been able to establish the credible presence of specimens of Andean mountain cats and colocolos over a period of no more than 10 years (the period 1988-1998). While in some cases we do not possess exact information on the date of death of many specimens studied in this analysis, they were recorded as the dates provided by the persons that possessed the pelts.

As one can see, almost all the confirmed records of the Andean mountain cat were found to be located in areas of greater than 3500 m elevation. In the case of the colocolo cat, the majority of the specimens detected were in an elevational range between 1500 and 4700 m. Records previous to this study indicated that this species was not present in zones above 3500 m elevation, nevertheless, confirmed records using photos of live specimens and skins confirm the fact that the colocolo cat can utilize areas as high as Surire (4700 m), Caquena (4600 m), Isluga (3900 m), and Enquelga (3800 m).

On Map 6 on can see the probably area of distribution of the Andean mountain cat in the present day in Chile, according to information recounted in this study. As it is possible to appreciate, the area is significantly less than that compiled in prior studies and reviews in which obsolete and unconfirmed information were included (Miller and Rottmann, 1976; Melquist, 1985; Nowell and Jackson, 1996; Johnson et al., 1998). The present distribution proposed in Map 6 was determined by incorporating the following parameters:

• Oreailurus jacobita should be present from the border with Peru in the north to the 28°S parallel in its distribution in Chile.

• The species does not regularly utilize elevational zones below 3500 m.

• Populations preferentially use habitats with colonies of viscachas present in areas with bofedales and rocky cliffs.

• Furthermore, they utilize areas with saline lakes (salar) for capturing aquatic birds and small rodents that feed on the grasses along the shores.

The population densities of the Andean mountain cat probably have always been low. The density of colocolo cats that live in similar ecosystems to the Andean mountain cat is much higher, without doubt. While areas with conditions acceptable to maintain viable populations of the Andean mountain cat are rare, this fact does not permit, by itself, an explanation of this extreme low density. The increase in abundance of one of its principal prey, the viscacha, has not significantly increased its densities. Beginning in the year 1992, viscachas have been placed under legal protection in Chile, totally prohibiting its hunting or capture. All the preceding, together with the extreme lack of information about its ecology has led different international (IUCN) and local organizations (CONAF and SAG) to recommend urgent measures for the preservation throughout its area of distribution, and to classify it on Appendix I of the CITES Convention. In Chile, all the species of cats have been totally protected, beginning in the year 1972 (Iriarte and Jaksic, 1986; Iriarte et al., 1997).

In general, no evidence exists regarding possible commercial exploitation of either species of cat in the Chilean Altiplano. Probably the major worry for its conservation centers on its sporadic hunting by ethnic Aymara for the purpose of using their skins and mummified bodies in festivities and rituals. As explained in earlier sections, the appearance of evangelical religious sects in the Aymara population in the Chilean altiplano has permitted a reduction in hunting pressure on the species. The persons that have converted to the new beliefs discard the old customs associated with the Catholic Church and the ancestral festivities of the Aymara people. Without doubt, this is good news for the conservation of the species in the area.

On the other hand, one of the possible hypotheses to explain the strong regression in the area of geographic distribution of the species (500 km) in less than a century is the strong pressure resulting from extirpation of the two species of chinchillas, long-tailed chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera) and the short-tailed chinchilla (Chinchilla brevicauda). In Nowell and Jackson (1996), they propose the hypothesis that the massive extirpation of both species of chinchillas probably produced a disastrous effect on populations of O. jacobita. These species of rodents are always eminently nocturnal and the viscacha is of crepuscular and diurnal habits. In the areas where the the presence of the Andean mountain cat has been recorded in the past century, abundant colonies of both species of chinchillas were also recorded. Unfortunately, the incessant capture [of chinchillas] for the purpose of obtaining pelts for exportation to European and North American countries in the last six decades of the last century (12 million pelts were exported from this zone) produced almost total local extinction (Iriarte and Jaksic, 1986; Iriarte, 1997). These numbers probably represent an important portion of the available prey for a specialist on nocturnal rodents in high elevation zones, as is the Andean mountain cat.

6. ABSTRACT AND CONCLUSIONS

• The local population of ethnic Aymara which has lived permanently in the zone for over eight thousand years can identify separately the two species of altiplano mountain cats.

• The Aymara inhabitants call the Andean mountain cat "titi" and the colocolo cat "abatire" giving more importance to the first species.

• Pelts or mummified specimens are used in ritual dances that are held in the month of February in order to have better harvests and higher fecundity of llamas and alpacas.
• An ancient Aymara tradition exists that the capture of a mountain cat brings good luck for one year to the person who captures it. At the same time, failure to capture it in the hunt could mean a year of bad luck.
• In almost all of the family groups in the Chilean altiplano it is possible to find a skin or mummified body of a mountain cat.
• Each June 24 in the city of Putre (3500 m elevation) a festival called "Fiesta del Titi" is held in homage to the Andean mountain cat.
• It seems that Andean mountain cats regularly capture aquatic birds, especially if one considers that the latter's populations have increased considerably owing to the protection from hunting that exists in almost all wetlands in the altiplano zone.
• The principal differences between Andean mountain cats and the colocolo are their larger size (30% greater) and its long and dense tail, and the easily appreciated 7 to 9 regular rings on the tail.
• The growing entrance of evangelical churches (non-Catholic) into the region has started a loss of the ancestral customs of using skins of wildlife and domestic animals, including the use of mountain cats.
• According to the information gathered herein, it is possible to conclude that the species does not live regularly at elevations below 3500 m elevation.
• The Andean mountain cat utilizes preferentially areas of low human use, the presence of cliffs with rocky talus slopes, and bofedales that serve as a feeding area for viscachas and other rodents and aquatic birds.
• No evidence was detected on the possible commerce in pelts in the area of its distribution in Chile. Owing to its extreme rarity, it is very improbable that a market for pelts exists in the zone.
• One of the possible causes of local extinction of the species in the southern portion of its distribution in Chile (Regions IV, V, and Metropolitan) is the massive extinction of one of its favorite prey, the long-tailed chinchilla (or lanigera) toward the end of the last century.

7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish, in the first place, to thank the important help received from the personnel of the Agricultural and Grazing Service that work on these subjects at the central level (Gabriel Seisdedos and Charif Tala), and that work in Regiones I (Victor Valdivia), II (Rene Kurte and Hibert Martinez) and III (Jose Andaur). Likewise, it would give me pleasure to thank the valuable information provided about both species by specialists who know the most about cats in Chile: Jose Luis Galaz, Fabian M. Jaksic, Mario Parada, Jurgen Rottmann, Juan Jose Anabalon, Walter Sielfeld, Angel Spotorno, Juan Carlos Torres-Mura, and Yerco Vilina. A special thanks to Misters Jim Sanderson and John Wagenknecht for showing me the video taken of the beautiful specimen of an Andean mountain cat and the valuable background that he was able to bring together during his stay in the region.

Furthermore, I wish to express my sincere thanks to the great help given by the park rangers of CONAF that work in the distinct wild protected areas in Regions I, II, and III: Herman Blanco, Humberto Cespedes, Leonardo Choque, Luis Araya, Enrique Miranda, and Carlos Nazar. Likewise, I thank the collaboration provided by Mrs. Barbara Knapton for the valuable information provided about the presence of mountain cats in the Putre zone.

Finally, I wish to express my great thanks to all the inhabitants of the Aymara culture that so kindly provided an important part of the information that I was able to bring together in this study. After conversing with many of them I was able to understand the knowledge that they possess of the environment around them. Even though they sometimes hunt mountain cats, they have been able to live together with the species for more than 8000 years without bringing the species to its almost complete extinction - as has happened today with our presence.