THE DISTRIBUTION OF TIGER, LEOPARD, ELEPHANT AND WILD CATTLE (GAUR, BANTENG, BUFFALO, KHTING VOR AND KOUPREY) IN CAMBODIA

INTERIM REPORT : JULY 1998

COMPILED BY CAMBODIA TIGER SURVEY INTERVIEW TEAM :

NARRATIVE BY HUNTER WEILER, CAMBODIA WILDLIFE PROTECTION OFFICE, 40 Norodom Blvd., Phnom Penh

E-mail : hunterw@worldmail.com.kh

Phone : (855-23) 216 640 Fax: (855-23) 722 928)

DIRECTION AND OVERSITE BY SUN HEAN, CAMBODIA WILDLIFE PROTECTION OFFICE (WPO) AND KRISTIN NOWELL, CAT ACTION TREASURY (CAT)

SUPPLEMENTARY DIRECTION FOR KOUPREY AND OTHER LARGE MAMMALS PROVIDED BY LIC VUTHY, CAMBODIA WILDLIFE PROTECTION OFFICE

FIELD OPERATIONS SUPPORT PROVIDED BY MEN SORIYUN, CAMBODIA WILDIFE PROTECTION OFFICE

1. BACKGROUND
2. GEOGRAPHIC AREAS METHODOLOGY
3. BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT REGIONS ANALYSIS
3.1 THE NORTHERN PLAINS
3.2 THE NORTH – EAST
3.2.1 MEKONG TO SEKONG SUB – REGION
3.2.2 SEKONG TO SE SAN SUB – REGION
3.2.3 SEKONG TO SREPOK SUB – REGION
3.2.4 SOUTH OF SREPOK SUB – REGION
3.3 PAILIN
3.4 THE SOUTH-WEST
4. INITIAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE CAMBODIA TIGER
5. BUFFALO
6. KHTING VOR
7. KOUPREY
7.1 KOUPREY WEST OF THE MEKONG
7.2 KOUPREY EAST OF THE MEKONG

MAP 1 DISTANCE FROM VILLAGE
MAP 2 TIGER SURVEY PROVINCES
MAP 3 BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT REGIONS
MAP 4 LOGGING IN PROTECTED AREAS
MAP 5 KOUPREY REPORTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Tiger, Leopard, Elephant, Gaur and Banteng are still present in assemblages of varying ratios and densities throughout the unpopulated areas of the Northern Plains, North-east, Pailin and South-west Biodiversity Management Regions of Cambodia ( BMR ) . Map 1, Distance from Village, indicates the locations of these areas.

The highest concentration Tigers is in the Cardamom Mountains of the South-west .This area also contains, by far, the largest Elephant population in Cambodia and probably in Indochina.

Another notable Tiger populations is in Virachey National Park, which also contains the largest Gaur concentration. The Keo Sema District of Mondulkiri east and north of the Snoul Wildlife Sanctuary has a very high density of Tigers, and appears to contain the highest overall ratio in Cambodia of high densities for Tiger, Elephant, Gaur and Banteng.

Overall, Banteng are the most widespread wild cattle in Cambodia, and occur in the highest numbers. Gaurs are a close second. Elephants are found only in small scattered, wandering herds except for the Cardamoms and Keo Sema.

Although Buffalo are widely reported, they may all be village Buffalo that have gone wild (feral Buffalo). The truly Wild Asian Water Buffalo may be extinct in Cambodia. Intact herds of Kouprey may be present in Koh Nhek District of Mondulkiri and in the Upper Taveng District of Virachey National Park along the Vietnam border. A few scattered individuals may remain in Siem Reap and Preah Vihear.

The Khiting Vor is confirmed for the first time west of the Mekong, and the first eyewitness accounts of encounters with this enigmatic animal were obtained. This mysterious animal was known previously only by sets of horns that have come out of the Mondulkiri/Vietnam border area.

1. BACKGROUND

Under a Memorandum of Understanding between the WPO and CAT, a Cambodia National Tiger Survey was conducted between January l998 through March 1998. Five recent Royal Agriculture University graduates (Tiger Team) were sent to all 13 provinces in Cambodia likely to hold large mammals. The provinces were identified by reviewing Map 1, Distance from Village and Map 2, Tiger Survey Provinces. Information was obtained by two methods. A category called "Officials", which includes Forestry and Agriculture officials, commune governors, district governors and army officers were given a three-page Questionnaire to fill out . Questionnaires were completed by 156 officials. A category called "Hunters", which included hunters, farmers, soldiers, woodcutters, rubber gatherers, rattan and Krassma wood collectors, and Khmer Rouge defectors were interviewed using a five-page Interview Form. Interview Forms were completed by 150 hunters. A map of 1:500,000 scale was prepared at each interview to show the Individual Hunter Area (IHA). Each Questionnaire and each Interview Form contained a checklist of 35 species to indicate low, medium, high or not present populations.

During the December l997 through March l998 period, Hunter Weiler (HW) was conducting the Kouprey Reconnaissance Project for WPO under the direction of Sun Hean and Lic Vuthy. HW, Sun Hean and Men Soriyun interviewed officials and hunters in Siem Reap, Ratanakiri and Stung Treng about Kouprey and other large mammals of international conservation interest, primarily Tiger, Leopard, Elephant, Banteng, Gaur, Buffalo and Khiting Vor. Two field reconnaissance were also conducted. See "Virachey National Park Expedition" and a "Wildlife Reconnaissance of the Phnom Voeene Area ". HW also studied all available English language reports and maps available related to large mammals in Cambodia, and extensively interviewed officials in Phnom Penh and international specialists with relevant knowledge.

It was anticipated that two reports would be compiled by July. One would be WPO input into the WWF "A Review of the Status of Tiger, Asian Elephant, Gaur and Banteng in Vietnam, Lao, Cambodia and Yunnan, with Recommendations for Future Conservation Action ". The other would be WPO input into the "IUCN/SSC Wild Cattle and Buffaloes Action Plan", which includes Gaur, Banteng, Kouprey and Buffalo.

In April, a decision was made to translate the Hunter Interview Form species checklists, and analyze them in combination with the Individual Hunter Area maps to help prepare key species status and distribution for the two reports. HW and the Tiger Team undertook this effort.

In May, Tiger Team members Sin Polin and OUk Kimson were dispatched to Preah Vihear (11 days) and Ratanakiri (18 days) to gather additional information on important areas that had been missed previously: Chhep, Upper Taveng , and the Srepok Triangle.

In June, a decision was made to have HW and the Tiger Team translate all of the 156 Official Questionnaires and 150 Hunter Interview Forms into English, analyze them, and prepare an interim Tiger Survey Report by July. Now faced with three separate but interrelated reports due in July, a decision was made to prepare one comprehensive interim report to summarize what has been learned to date.

2. GEOGRAPHIC AREAS METHODOLOGY

At the recommendation of the Tiger Team, only the species checklists of the hunters were used to compile status and distribution tables. The hunters have the best first hand knowledge of the animals. Most of them have spent months in the forests each year for many years. Also, a detailed map was prepared for each hunter area. Officials, on the other hand, largely report what they have heard secondhand, and the geographic areas they refer to are often vaguely defined.

The species lists in the Hunter Interview Forms were translated, and summary tables were prepared for common geographic areas, which were developed using the basic building blocks of the Individual Hunter Area maps. The Tables 1-8 show high-medium-low-not present populations for Tiger, Leopard, Elephant, Gaur, Banteng, Buffalo, Kouprey and Khiting Vor. These are the species determined to be of greatest international conservation interest, and are easily recognized by the hunters. Confusion may exist over the identification of various types of deer, small cats, etc. and these other species were not analyzed at this time. Leopard were included at the suggestion of William Duckworth to help test for confusion between Tiger and Leopard. It is suspected that Tigers are sometimes blamed for things that Leopards do, and that the tracks are often confused.

HW is aware of the problems other studies have faced using villager information, but is confident that the information in this report is fairly reliable because experienced hunters provided first hand information. (The Virachey and Voeene reports detail HW accounts of working with hunters in the field to gather wildlife information.)

Some tests were performed on the Tables to see if the hunters might be exaggerating the presence of animals. Rhino were once found in Cambodia, and are known now through myth and legend, often depicted on the paintings inside wats. If the hunters were prone to embellish, a few would report the presence of Rhino in their area. Not one of the 150 hunters reported Rhino. The Kouprey was designated the national animal of Cambodia by Sihanouk in the l960's and is also widely recognized. Some hunters might be tempted to report the presence of Kouprey, or confuse them with Gaur or Banteng. However, Kouprey were only reported in low numbers and without exception from the few areas where historical information indicates they were once found.

Likewise, there are differences in reported population levels reported for Tiger and Leopard, Gaur and Banteng, etc. For all of these reasons we believe that the credibility of the hunters and their reported information is high, and that the hunters can well distinguish between the different species.

High, medium, and low populations are relative levels in the eyes of the hunters. No numerical densities are stated or assumed for those levels in this report. HW realizes that estimating tiger numbers is very complex and passes on the estimates of area numbers developed by the Tiger Team and the hunters as a first cut. These numbers result in an estimated Cambodia total of over a thousand Tigers, which is the consistent with the preliminary estimate Sun Hean gave at the l998 Dallas Tiger Conference. It is anticipated that IUCN Tiger experts and statistical experts will considerably refine density values and population estimates.

Once the initial preparation of Summary Tables was completed and geographic areas designated, they were correlated with maps showing human population distribution, vegetation cover, topography and rivers, protected areas, and logging areas to develop a Cambodia overview of the distribution and status of the key large mammals in relation to other phenomena. This has never been done before, either by the French in the colonial period or by the Cambodians since independence.

This report presents for the first time what we believe is a reasonably accurate Cambodia overview. Extensive field work over a period of years will be a necessary follow up, but at last there is a conceptual framework within which to prioritize and conduct that work.. Undoubtedly there will be some revisions to the framework as further information is developed. This report is intended as a point of departure for a long process, not as the final definitive word on anything.

It is anticipated that CAT and Sun Hean will compile the final Cambodia National Tiger Survey Report in the U.S. over the next some months. The Tiger Team will continue to provide analysis and support. Although a first cut of the translation of the narrative portion of the Official Questionnaires and Hunter Interview Forms has just been completed, a joint review and clarification of each form is necessary with the interviewer. Time has allowed little analysis of the narrative information.

It is anticipated that another several months will be required to properly analyze, computerize, cross-reference, correlate, compare and summarize all of the information, and to produce accurate GIS maps and other supporting documents.

Preliminary discussions and review of draft information and maps with the GIS Unit of the Department of Forestry and Wildlife and the Department of Geography, Information Resource Integration Center indicate that an enormous amount of useful mapping and information storage and analysis can be performed for the project.

This report is not formally footnoted and referenced due to time constraints. The purpose of this report is to convey the maximum amount possible of new information gained to CAT, WWF, and IUCN in a timely manner. The total of all information HW has gained after six months in Cambodia is used to supplement and interpret the information in the Summary Tables.

3. BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT REGIONS ANALYSIS

Starting with the smallest building block, the Individual Hunter Area, areas were combined into the largest possible logical areas. Many combinations are possible and many were experimented with. Each combination has its own advantages, disadvantages, and compromises. The largest logical areas are used to present an overview, then detailed analysis on smaller sub-areas is presented.

The primary framework for analysis is Map 3, Biodiversity Management Regions. This map also shows the location of the protected areas in each region as well as the distribution of villages in Cambodia. The Tonle Sap, Mekong, and Kampong Cham Regions are where most of the people in Cambodia live, and they are largely devoid of viable populations of large mammals.

Cambodia's large mammals are located in the Northern Plains, Northeast, South-west, and Pailin Regions. The Map 2, Tiger Survey Provinces, can be used to correlate these biodiversity regions with current administrative divisions in Cambodia. See also Map 5, Kouprey Reports, for key reference points mentioned in this report.

3.1 THE NORTHERN PLAINS

To the outside world, Angkor Wat is the most famous place in Cambodia. Tiger country in the North Plains begins North of Angkor Wat. The terrain is flat with isolated phnoms and low plateaus. Vegetation is primarily open grassy forest, with some areas of evergreen forest and mixed forest. It contains the classic Kouprey areas of Kulen and Chhep, where Wharton conducted his studies in the l950's and l960's.

Northern Siem Reap Province is in the former Khmer Rouge stronghold and underwent years of warfare. It contains many of the worst minefields in Cambodia. All ten hunters here report low tiger populations, with a total estimated population of 28 to 30. The large Kulen Wildlife Sanctuary contains little wildlife.

The situation improves slightly in the smaller area to the east in northern Preah Vihear Province along the Thai and Lao borders. Military activity declines rapidly once east of the Tri-border, and three hunters out of five report medium tiger populations. Two hunters report low population. The total Tiger population is estimated at 22. A remnant of Kouprey may remain near the Tri-border.

Further east, in the follow up mission to Chhep in May/June, other hunters and officials were interviewed. Wharton's Kouprey and Buffalo are gone. (See Wild Cattle Section.) Low populations of Tiger, Gaur and Banteng remain, and one or two herds of elephant. The evergreen forest from the Chhep border to the Mekong in Stung Treng Province also contains low tiger populations as reported by the two Stung Treng West hunters. Throughout all of the Districts of Preah Vihear, small scattered herds of Gaur and Banteng roam, along with very small numbers of elephant.

The large area along the Kampong Thom/Kratie boundary, devoid of villages, would seem to be ideal tiger habitat. However, nine Kampong Thom hunters report low Tiger populations. The remaining two report Tiger not present. See Map 4, Logging in Protected Areas, for the reason. Formerly a vast evergreen forest, it's now the largest block of logged-over country in Cambodia. Once roamed by large herds of Elephant, six hunters report not present, four low, and one medium.

Other areas of extensive logging are shown on the Northern Plains. Over half of Boeng Per Wildlife Sanctuary has been logged off. The other half contains little wildlife. There is one important area from Phnom Run to Phnom Tbeng, north of the west half of Boeng Per, that contains a green forest and many animals, but it is in a pending logging concession.

War, open country that allows easy hunting, logging, and habitat fragmented by human settlement and activity result in a total estimate of perhaps something in excess of 100 Tigers scattered across the Northern Plains. The Tri-border and Phnom Run areas appear to have the highest densities.

3.2 THE NORTH-EAST

3.2.1 Mekong to Se Kong Sub-region

This complicated region must be further subdivided for meaningful analysis. The sub-region between the Mekong and Se Kong has been highly degraded and contains only scattered remnants of Tiger, based on one hunter interview, the l994 aerial survey, and other available information. Much logging has occurred in this area. The team does not consider it important for any large mammals.

3.2.2 Se Kong to Se San Sub-region

The sub-region between the Se Kong and the Se San, on the other hand, is one of the most important wildlife areas in Cambodia. It contains the Virachey National Park along the Lao and Vietnam borders, and the vast wilderness of the Phnom Voeene Triangle directly between the Se Kong and Se San. Both areas are predominantly evergreen forest, but contain grass savannahs, mixed forests, and open forests. Villages are completely absent in the core of both areas. Virachey is rugged plateau and mountain, while Voeene is flat with isolated Phnoms.

Of a total of twelve hunters in this sub-region, two report low Tiger, seven medium, and three high. The Virachey and Voeene expeditions gained additional evidence of good Tiger populations, particularly along the Lao border. Total Tiger numbers are estimated upwards of 150. Virachey appears to have the most robust Gaur population in Cambodia. There are good Banteng populations in the Voeene and Taveng areas, and a remnant of Kouprey may be present along the Vietnam border in upper Taveng. Elephant populations have apparently been reduced to a few small remnant herds in the Siem Pang and Taveng portions of Virachey.

3.2.3 Se San to Srepok Sub-region

The large area of Ratanakiri and Stung Treng Provinces between the Se San and the Srepok is largely devoid of large mammals due to human population and land conversion. All available sources confirm this, including a 1996 WWF/IUCN/WPO field investigation. Three hunters currently in the area report very low Tiger, with an estimated total population of 3 to 6. The area contains the portion of Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary north of the Srepok, but the sanctuary is highly degraded and shot out.

3.2.4 South of the Srepok Sub-region

South of the Srepok, the picture again changes dramatically. Rivers are generally the heart of ecosystems, but the Se Kong, Se San, and Srepok are major ecosystem boundaries for large mammals. In fact, large mammals generally avoid the rivers. This was recently confirmed by a Flora and Fauna International/WPO expedition that spent six weeks travelling the entire Se San from the Vietnam border. Rob Timmins and Men Soriyun report an utter and complete lack of evidence of the presence of large mammals anywhere along the river, although important birds were seen.

There is one important exception to this description: The Srepok Triangle, Formed by the Srepok river, the Vietnam boundary, and Ratanakiri/Mondulkiri boundary, along the O Lieu. This is the only part of Mondulkiri north of the Srepok. The area has no villages and few hunters reach this area. It is reported to contain Tiger, Leopard, Banteng, Gaur, and rarely, Elephant, Buffalo and Kouprey. Koy Soka, Director of Virachey National Park and Deputy Provincial Environmental Director, told HW that there are more large mammals here than anywhere in Ratanakiri.

This was confirmed by the follow up Tiger Team mission to Ratanakiri in May /June. There is little logging in this area because it is primarily open and mixed forest. It is probably the best open forest left in the North-east, and the only area where good habitat remains on both sides of the Srepok, making it the only truly wild stretch of the Srepok. There is extensive logging on the north border of the Triangle, almost to the Mondulkiri border.

An enormous contiguous block of wildlife habitat stretches from the Srepok all the way east and south to the Vietnam border, and west to the edge of the populated areas along the Mekong. This western edge generally runs parallel to the Mondulkiri/Kratie border inside Kratie. The region is sparsely populated by humans, and little land conversion has taken place with the important exception of logging in the evergreen forest areas. Most of the area is flat, open grassy forest with isolated Phnoms and blocks of evergreen forest, particularly along the Mondulkiri/Kratie border.

These blocks form important ecologic edges, because many large mammals move from the open forest into the evergreen forest in the dry season. The most famous of these is The Prey Khieu (Green Forest) near the Four Border area of Stung Treng, Ratanakiri, Mondulkiri, and Kratie. It is hunted hard by hunters from all four provinces. Last year a road was constructed into the Pre Khieu, and logging began. Animals are said to be fleeing in large numbers, and more animals are being seen in the open forest than in past years. Kouprey sightings were reported in this area during l997 and l998.

For the sub-region as a whole, nine hunters report low Tiger, 17 medium, and nine high. This wide range is attributed to the huge area involved, which contains varying densities of Tiger depending on the exact area hunted. A total population of 150 to 200 Tiger was derived from the hunter's estimates. Elephant, Banteng, and Gaur herds are scattered through the area in varying densities and ratios. Generally, the areas along the Kratie/Mondulkiri boundary are reported to have the greatest numbers of animals. This includes the large Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary in Mondulkiri.

The portion of Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary south of the Srepok lies just east of the Pre Khieu. Six hunters of this area report medium Tiger levels, low elephant, and medium Gaur and Banteng, in complete contrast to the portion of Lomphat north of the Srepok, which is basically devoid of large mammals.

The five hunters from Keo Sema District hunt in Mondulkiri, north and east of the Kratie border and Snoul Wildlife Sanctuary. This is a transition zone where the plains meet the western edge of the high Mondulkiri Plateau. All five report high Tiger. Keo Sema also reports medium to high Elephant, and high Banteng, and Gaur, giving this area the highest reported ratio of all of these animals in Cambodia. This relatively small sub-area of evergreen forest, open forest and ecologic edges appears to be one of the most important wildlife areas in Cambodia. A small part of the Snoul Wildlife Sanctuary extends into Keo Sema, but most of Snoul is in Kratie province. Adjacent Kratie hunters do not report nearly as high a ratio of any of these animals. Much higher densities of large mammals are apparently found east and north of the Snoul Sanctuary in Keo Sema.

Mondulkiri contains one other Wildlife Sanctuary: Nam Lyr, along the eastern Vietnam border. Pich Roda East hunters report two low and one medium for Tiger, one low and two not present for Elephant, one low, one medium, and one high for Gaur, and three medium for Banteng in the Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary area.

3.3 PAILIN

Pailin lies along the Thai border north of the Cardamom Range to where the northern Plains begin. It is a small but highly varied region, containing hills along the Thai border, the Battambang plain, evergreen forest, open grassy forest, and mixed forest. Land use fragments the region. Only the western half is away from populated areas. Extensive logging takes place all along the Thai border. Much warfare has taken place in this area. However, large mammals do remain. From Bantey Meanchy, four hunters report low Tiger. Further south in Battambang, twelve hunters report low Tiger and four reports medium. Hunter estimates put the Bantey Meanchy Tiger population at 21, and the Battambang population at 95. ( HW thinks The Battambang figure sounds twice what is reasonable considering the size of the area and the generally low reported density.)

All four Bantey Meanchey hunters report that elephants are not present. ten Battambang hunters report low elephant; two reports not present. This is disappointing, since prior to this report the western Thai-Cambodia border was identified as a potential area of high elephant concentration by several sources. However, Bantey Meanchey hunters report medium populations of Banteng and low populations of Gaur, and Battambang hunters report low to high populations of Banteng and Gaur within this fragmented region. The large Roneam Daun Som Wildlife Sanctuary is representative of the region, and logging is taking place only along the Thai border portion of the sanctuary.

3.4 THE SOUTH-WEST

The heart of this region is the Cardamom Range in Koh Kong and Pursat Provinces, and the north to south trending Elephant Range extending into Kampot. To the east in Kampong Speu is Phnom Aurol, the highest point in Cambodia at 5810 feet. Between the rice belt along the Tonle Sap-Mekong Regions boundary and the coastal population enclaves of Koh Kong, Sihanoukville, Kampot and Kep lies a vast, unpopulated mountain wilderness. The rainfall here is the highest in Cambodia, and its' evergreen forests the densest. There are important ecologic edges of open grassy and mixed forests around the bases of the mountain complexes in Pursat. Much of southern Koh Kong and most of the Phnom Aurol Wildlife Sanctuary are being logged, along with portions of Bokor and Kirirom National Parks. However, there is still a huge area of northern Koh Kong and all of western Pursat that has not been significantly logged, including the Phnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary, which is slightly larger than Virachey National Park.

The Tiger Survey indicates that the heart of this region is the most important Tiger area in Cambodia, and possibly in Indochina. Twenty-three out of thirty-one hunters report high Tiger density. The remaining eight report medium. The Koh Kong Tiger population is estimated by the hunters at over 200, and the Pursat population at almost 200, for a total of 400. Densities drop off rapidly away from the core : All nine Kampong Speu hunters to the east report low Tiger densities, with a total population of 15 to 30; to the south, six Kampot hunters report low and five medium, with a total population of 28 to 31 Tigers in the general Elephant Range area.

By whatever ecologic coincidence, the elephant density and population in the Cardamom Range is also, by far, the highest in Cambodia. An incredible 29 out of 31 Koh Kong/Pursat hunters report high elephant densities. Herds of Gaur are scattered through Koh Kong and to a much lesser extent through Pursat in low to medium densities, but only in sub-areas of suitable habitat. Banteng are scattered through Koh Kong and Pursat in medium numbers in sub-areas of suitable habitat. Leopards are an enigma in this region. fifteen hunters report not present, six reports low, seven reports medium, and three reports high. Again, the extreme variation in habitat types within the region is a likely explanation.

A brief review of the recently translated Official Questionnaires reveals two salient contrasts with the Hunter Interview Forms. Whereas the hunters report 23 high and eight medium Tiger densities, the officials reports two high , 15 medium and 15 low. This illustrates the validity of the Tiger Team decision to separate out the hunter information to determine status and distribution. The different perception of the officials will be important in developing and implementing measures to protect the Tiger.

The second contrast is that 21 officials see deforestation as the primary threat to Tiger, eight war, and one forest burning. Only two see the gun as the biggest threat. The hunters, on the other hand, generally report hunting, snares, mines and soldiers as the biggest threat to the Tiger. And a number of hunters see Tiger populations increasing because of generally low hunting pressure and success. Some hunters claimed they only shoot Sambar, Barking Deer and Wild Pigs for meat, and Tigers only in self-defense. Others pointed out that most people in the area are cutting wood and fishing, not hunting.

Out of the first 15 Hunter Interview Forms translated and analyzed for Koh Kong/Pursat, three reports Tiger kill livestock sometimes, and one report often. By contrast, a walk in the woods in Koh Kong Pursat can be a dangerous proposition. Ten of the 15 Hunters cite specific incidents of Tigers killing people, in many cases multiple times. In one area, over 20 people were killed. One case involved over 50 people in one area, with all incidents occurring at night. (Sounds like a Leopard to HW. In hunting three confirmed man-eating Leopards and one man-eating Tiger in India and Nepal in the l970's and 1980's, the pattern was almost exclusively Leopard killing people inside villages at night and Tiger killing people in the forest by day. On the other hand, the pattern may be different in Cambodia.

4. SOME INITIAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE CAMBODIA TIGER

As HW has just received and read all of the recently translated Official Questionnaires and the approximately two-thirds of the Hunter Interview Forms that have been translated to date, a detailed analysis is not possible. Some overall impressionistic observations are presented.

It appears that Cambodia Tigers have a generally good prey base and large areas to roam, which accounts for their widespread distribution and high numbers in some areas. When hunters describe Tiger in relation to other animals, it is most often in reference to Sambar, Barking Deer and Wild Pig. These animals are undoubtedly the major Tiger prey base, and their numbers are reported as high throughout Cambodia. There are a few accounts of Tiger taking Banteng and Gaur, and an exciting account of a Tiger chasing a herd of Elds Deer on the Thai/Lao/Cambodia border. A duel to the death between a Tiger and a Black Bear in the middle of a stream is described. (The Tiger wins and drags the Bear across the stream and into the woods to eat.)

Livestock killing by Tiger does not appear to be a major problem anywhere in Cambodia. The large areas of habitat away from settled areas, containing a large prey base, along with hunting pressure, keep the Tiger for the most part away from the village areas.

Outside of Koh Kong/Pursat, incidents of Tiger killing people in Cambodia are uncommon. Most incidents appear to be the result of chance encounters in the forest between Tigers and lone hunters, soldiers, guerillas, woodcutters, loggers, Krassna wood collectors, etc., rather than the work of confirmed man-eaters. For example, from all of the hunters in Mondolkiri there are only two reports of people being killed by Tiger. One hunter lost his aunt to a Tiger in Sihanouk time, and a lone O Rang District hunter was reportedly killed by a Tiger.

Rabinowitz reports in Estimating Tiger Populations in Thailand that Tiger densities are lower in mountain areas than lowlands. However, in Cambodia the highest densities by far are reported in the Cardamom Range, and relatively high densities are reported in the Virachey Range. Fieldwork by Tiger experts will be necessary to sort this out.

Most hunters have only seen a Tiger once or twice. However, a few report " many times ", or numbers like " 20 times ". Tiger tracks, on the other hand, are reported on almost every visit to the forest by many hunters.

Deer and Wild Pigs, caught in snares, are often eaten by Tigers. Tiger caught eating animals trapped, are often shot. Tigers are often caught in snares intended for Deer and Wild Pig. HW recommends an intensive field campaign to reduce the indiscriminate use of non- selective snares in Tiger country.

Tigers are killed by mines in Cambodia: One hunter reported that he walked to the forest and saw a tiger die, because it stepped on a mine. (weight of Tiger was 90-100kg.)

Trade in Tiger is widespread and almost all officials and hunters have knowledge of it. The ultimate market is almost always Thailand, Laos, Vietnam or Phnom Penh. Market value is always determined for two categories: Bone by kg , and skin. Current market prices and trends are too complicated to summarize here and require a separate detailed analysis.

The wide range of attitudes towards the Cambodia Tiger can be illustrated with some quotes from the hunters and officials.

From Battambang Province: "At Rattanak Mondul District, Mr. Om Pan said that all persons living at Toek Kraham Village and travelers through the area saw a Tiger walk across the road every month. They could not shoot it, because the Tiger had the magic."

From Ratanakiri Province: "In early l998 three Tiger's cubs were caught by a Vietnamese man in their hole in the ground at Kun Tuy Nheark area (Cambodia and Vietnam border. ) Two of the cubs were killed to eat and one was sold."

From Stung Treng Province: "On 20 January 1998 the villagers saw a Tiger walking in the forest behind the village. The villagers said that its' a God's Tiger because this Tiger is always seen after they pray to their God every year."

5. BUFFALO

Per the summary table, a few hunters from every region of Cambodia report the presence of Buffalo. It is assumed that most are referring to village Buffalo that have gone wild. However, it is well documented that truly Wild Asia Water Buffalo inhabited certain areas of Cambodia at least through the l960's. They can be clearly seen in the Wharton Wild Cattle movie of the Chhep area. HW was therefore intrigued when all 15 Siem Reap/Preah Vihear hunters reported the presence of Buffalo in medium densities. Since Kouprey and Khiting Vor were also reported from this area, a follow-up mission was conducted.

Tiger Team member Sin Polin was dispatched to Preah Vihear with specific instructions to carefully question the hunters on the identification of Buffalo. He was also directed to proceed by any available means to Chhep, since no information on this area was acquired on the initial survey. In fact, the Chhep area had been closed to wildlife researchers for decades, since Wharton's studies. An airplane was not even allowed to fly over the area in the l994 aerial wildlife survey. In a daring denied area penetration, Sin Polin proceeded by military aircraft to Tbeng Meanchy, the capital of Preah Vihear, and then rode a motor bike to Chhep, where he spent several days interviewing hunters and officials. Security has improved. In fact, there were no problems at all. Sin Polin was able to return overland all the way from Chhep back to Phnom Penh.

As was suspected, most of the hunters agreed that the wild Buffalo disappeared during the Pol Pot time. Only one report was received of a recent sighting. In 1994, Ten Sen, a hunter from Chhep, saw two Buffalo sleeping in a lake on the Lao border near the headwaters of the Repou. He assumes the Buffalo were wild because the area is too remote from any villages for village Buffalo to reach. This may be true. The preponderance of the evidence is that the Wild Asian Water Buffalo are gone from the area, with the remote possibility of a few scattered individuals remaining in the Tri-border area.

All 12 Battambang hunters report Buffalo. Eight report low, and four report medium. This is one of three areas in Cambodia where every hunter in the area reports the presence of Buffalo. HW has no knowledge of the history of Wild Asian Water Buffalo along the western Thai/Cambodia border, and is therefore not qualified to offer an opinion on the significance of these reports.

All five Mondulkiri/Koh Nhek hunters report Buffalo: two low, one medium and one high.. This is another area where Wild Asian Water Buffalo were known to have been present in past years. The hunter who gave the high ranking observed a large herd of Buffalo in the Srepok triangle in 1997 and is certain they were wild. They may well have been. The hunter distinguished between two varieties of Wild Buffalo: The larger Forest Buffalo, and smaller River Buffalo. Sun Hean reached the edge of the Srepok Triangle on his 1995 Elephant-based expedition, and saw three sets of tracks which he is certain were made by Wild Buffalo. HW concludes that if there are any Wild Asian Water Buffalo left in Cambodia, they are most likely in the Srepok Triangle.

6. KHITING VOR

The Khiting Vor is a mystery animal. Prior to this survey, it was known to the outside world only by a few sets of unique spiral-shaped horns with distinct annulation rings their entire length. All of the horns were said to originate in the Vietnam/Mondulkiri border area. However, in this survey only three of the 35 South of the Srepok hunters reported the presence of Khiting Vor. Two of the hunters are from Mondulkiri Koh Nhek; one is from Mondulkiri Pich Roda East. Both of these areas border Vietnam. None of the 31 hunters in the Northeast north of the Srepok reported Khiting Vor, even though that area includes all of the remaining Vietnam border north of Mondulkiri. (Mondulkiri hunters in 1996 told Men Soriyun that the Khiting Vor stands up on its hind legs to eat leaves from trees.)

To everyone's great surprise, 15 hunters in the South-west Biodiversity Management Region, two hunters from the Pailin Region, and eight from the Northern Plains reported the presence of Khiting Vor.

In 1995, a Battambang hunter reports that a Khiting Vor ran out into the open during a battle on the Thai/Cambodia border. The animal was immediately gunned down, and after the battle the soldiers divided up the distinctly annulated spiral horns into pieces because of their fantastic value as an ingredient in some specialized medicines.

In Kampong Thom, Phnom Chi rises from the vast plain on the Kratie boundary. It is the only Phnom for 70 kilometers in any direction. The land cover map indicates that Phnom Chi is a hub for the intersection of evergreen forest, open forest, and mixed forest. Kampong Thom hunters report that Khiting Vor were shot on Phnom Chi through the l960's. The animal is well known and goes by four names. Khiting Oil is so called because when the hair is rubbed an oily substance covers the hand. Khiting Breng is a variation with smooth horns instead of annulation. Khiting Pus is the Cobra-eating Gaur, and of course Khiting Vor means Snake-eating Gaur. (HW has found no evidence that Khiting Vor are ever confused with Gaur.) In l998 a logging company manager told Sun Hean that Khiting Vor were still present on Phnom Chi.

In Siem Reap, none of the ten hunters report the presence of Khiting Vor, but in adjacent Preah Vihear, three to five report it. During the Tiger Survey, hunter Chey Chin of Chom Khsan showed Sin Polin a complete set of Khiting Vor horns, and carved off a segment which Sin Polin brought back to Phnom Penh. Chey Chin said that in Preah Vihear, the animal is normally referred to as the Leaf-eating Gaur. On the follow-up mission to Preah Vihear, HW had instructed Sin Polin to photograph the horns and obtain detailed information on the animal. Unfortunately, Chey Chin sold the horns to a trader from Lao on 3 March l998 for $600. (The current price of Gaur and Banteng horns in Chhep, by contrast, is $150.) Chey Chin shot the Khiting Vor between l960 and 1965 , 7 or 8 kilometers from Kampong Sralou between the Lao border and Ba Tho Mountain.

Chea Chin knew another hunter, Chan Sao from Bang Kan village in Roveng District , who died recently. At Chan Sao's house, a set of Khiting Vor horns are still hanging on the wall. Chan Sao shot the Khiting Vor in 1960 in the Prey Lang area, which is at the tri-boundary of Preah Vihear, Stung Teng, and Kampong Thom, 70 kilometers north of Phnom Chi. Chey Chin says that the Khiting Vor is no longer found in northern Preah Vihear.

Nu Rewin, a hunter from Chhep, reports that he saw two Khiting Vor in 1970 near Dang Plat village at O Dongplate (The Open Forest), which is due north of Chhep along the Lao border.

Prum Em, another hunter from Chhep, met two Khiting Vor in 1960 in the Phnom Tom area, which is in extreme southwest Chhep District on the Stung Treng border. He shot one of the Khiting Vor and it attacked him and leaped over him about five meters. Prum Em describes the Khiting Vor as dark reddish in color, more slender but taller than a Banteng or cow, with legs like a Sambar. It is very quick and agile, a leaper and a jumper. It likes the mountains. Now their numbers are very low. Prum Em estimates one or two remain on Rolom Ampil Mountain, which is due south of Chhep on the Chey Sen District boundary, about 12 kilometers west of Phnom Tom.

7. KOUPREY

7.1 KOUPREY WEST OF THE MEKONG

Kouprey are reported in low numbers from two of ten hunters in Siem Reap Province. These hunters report that only an individual or two remain on Thom Das Mountain, near Phum Sala in southwest Varin District, Area 1 on Map 5, Kouprey Reports

On 5 December l997, Sun Hean and HW interviewed Mai Mon, Forest and Wildlife Section, Chi Kreng District, Siem Reap Province. West of Phnom Kulen, there is another complex known as Phnom Run, Area 2 on The Kouprey reports. In January l997, a noted hunter/soldier from Prey Chhka named Snguun saw two Kouprey on Phnom Run. Snguun died of Malaria in May 1998. Mai Mon says he himself saw six Kouprey in this area in 1984. Before 1960, he estimates around 200 Kouprey were present, and large herds were seen on every trip through this area. Between Phnom Run and Phnom Tabeng to the northwest is a large virgin evergreen forest. There is permanent water on both Phnoms, even during the dry season. The wildlife moves seasonally back and forth between the two Phnoms. Tiger, Banteng, Gaur and some Elephant are still present.

When Sin Polin returned to Preah Vihear, the same Chea Chin that showed him the Khiting Vor horns told him that in l993 he had met a herd of four or five Kouprey in the Cambodia/Thai/Lao Tri-border, Area 3 on the Kouprey map. This is the only area that other Preah Vihear hunters said might still contain a remnant herd of six or so Kouprey. They suspect this area because it is hard to get to and has a lot of wildlife, but as previously noted, Sengluch hunted it hard in the l980's and never saw a Kouprey there. Furthermore, The map of Logging in Protected Areas shows there has been extensive recent logging in the Tri-border area.

Chea Chin heard from another hunter that seven Kouprey were seen in 1991 drinking from the Tonle Repou, Area 4 on the Kouprey map. All other Kouprey sightings and shootings reported from Chhep and Choam Ksam were from the l960's and early 1970's.

On the evening of 5 December, Sun Hean and HW interviewed a well-known former professional Hunter in Siem reap named Sengluch. During the l980's, Sengluch estimates that he shot over 100 Banteng and 100 Elephants. However, he never shot a Kouprey. This is surprising, because his favorite area was from the Mekong all along the Cambodia/Lao border to the Thai Border. He never saw a Kouprey in this area, which supports other reports that the Kouprey were largely shot out of this area by the end of the l970's.

Sengluch did see a female Kouprey with a calf in the late l980's near Phnom Chi, Area 5 on the Kouprey map. A year later local hunters shot two Kouprey in the same area. Sengluch has seen the horns and says they are still retained in a local village. He has offered to write a letter to his relatives in the area, who will take us to the village and show us the horns. HW found no previous mention of Kouprey near Phnom Chi in the literature, although the area is just inside the southern boundary of the map of known historic Kouprey range. This is the same Phnom Chi where the Khiting Vor were reported .

Although Sengluch never shot a Kouprey, he did buy a total of 12 Kouprey horns during the l980's, and saw another estimated 18 horns during his involvement with the trade. He also purchased a single Rhino horn, which was said to have originated in Vietnam. Thailand was the market for all horns.

7.2 KOUPREY EAST OF THE MEKONG

Between the Se Kong and the Se San River, two of four Siem Pang District hunters report low Kouprey. This is Area 6 on the Kouprey map. HW had already carefully reviewed this area and mounted a field reconnaissance into the area most likely to contain Kouprey. See "A Wildlife Reconnaissance of the Phnom Voeene Area." HW thinks it unlikely that any Kouprey remain in this area. The Se Kong Plains along the Cambodia/Lao border were investigated in the early l990's by teams from the Lao side, with no positive results.

From Taveng District in Virachey National Park, Area 7 on the Kouprey map, two hunters of five report Kouprey. In his follow up mission to Ratanakiri, Ouk Kimsan interviewed a police officer, who saw two Kouprey in 1996 drinking water from the upper Ta Pok in the dry season. The officer was adamant that he well knew the difference between a Kouprey, a Gaur, and a Banteng. The police officer lives in the area and mans the border checkpoint six kilometers into Cambodia from Vietnam on the road through the Dragons Tail and on into Laos. This area is called the Sou Neuk Non or Hot Water Area because of the Hot Springs. (This is where the north to south trending Annamite Range along the Vietnam/Lao border makes a right angle turn and becomes the east to west trending Virachey Range along the Lao/Cambodia border.) In l997, in the dry season, the police officer reports that he saw about 20 Kouprey near the Vietnam border.

On 27 December 1997, HW and Men Soriyun traveled from Stung Treng to Krabei Chrum, a village on the Srepok River in Stung Treng Province near the Ratanakiri border, to investigate reports of a recent Kouprey sighting. During a five hour interview, the hunter described a number of extended hunting trips he had made South of the Srepok into the Four- border area and The Pre Kieu. This is Area 8 on the Kouprey map. During the l980's, he had shot a total of three Kouprey in this area.

In l996, three years after the government had asked people to stop hunting and turn in their guns, a soldier loaned him a gun and told him to obtain some fresh meat. Two days fast walk South of the Srepok, the hunter came upon a female Kouprey and a calf. Both had been killed by Tiger and partially eaten. He removed the horns of the female and later sold them to a Thai trader. He felt there were probably still a few Kouprey in the area, but wouldn't have any idea how to find them in this vast region. He did note that large mammals concentrated in the evergreen forest during the dry season. (This is The Pre Khieu that is now being logged.)

On 28 December, Men Soriyun and HW proceeded to Sre Angkrong on the Srepok, and inspected a set of female Kouprey horns that the owner had refused to sell to Thai traders, despite an offer of over $10,000. The owner wants future generations at Sre Angkrong to see them. The Kouprey was shot in the l940's.

In February l998, a logging official and an armed crew came upon a herd of six Kouprey in the Four Border Area. The crew wanted to open fire, but the logging official ordered them not to, explaining that the Kouprey was a very special animal. The official visited the Chief of the Wildlife Protection Office in Phnom Penh to report this incident.

During Ouk Kimsan's follow up mission to Ratanakiri, villagers told him that a Kouprey was shot in the Pre Khieu in April 1998 and the hunter was asking $10,000 for the horns. The current field price of Gaur and Banteng horns, by contrast, is about $150.

Four of six South of the Srepok Ratanakiri hunters report low Kouprey. On the follow up mission, it was learned that Kouprey are no longer found in the Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary South of the Srepok, but are found further east in Koh Nhek District on both sides of the Srepok in the triangle Area. This is Area 9 on the Kouprey map. This is the same area where the famous journalist Nate Thayer conducted a Kouprey search in 1994, reporting a track

In a recently recovered letter dated February 25, l994 to Chhun Sareth, Daniel H. Henning describes a personal interview with Army Captain Cham Yet. The Captain saw two herds of Kouprey in October 1992 near the Mondulkiri/Ratanakiri/Vietnam border. He observed the Kouprey from about 200 meters, but gave a detailed description that indicates a positive identification.

The one Mondulkiri/Koh Nhek hunter that reported low Kouprey reported to Tiger team member Kry Masphal that he observed a single Kouprey running with a herd of Banteng. He inspected the tracks, and they were different from the Banteng. He covered the tracks to protect them and reported the incident to Mondulkiri authorities. No further information is available, other than the incident occurred within the last three years.

On the return mission to Ratanakiri, Ouk Kimsan learned that in December l997 a police officer encountered a herd of approximately ten Kouprey in the Triangle near the O Leo Stream, which is the Ratanakiri/Mondulkiri boundary of the Triangle. The officer opened fire with an automatic weapon, killing a pregnant female Kouprey and wounding two or three others, which escaped into the forest.

The conclusion after the first six months of the Kouprey Reconnaissance Project is that intact herds of Kouprey may be present in the Srepok Triangle, and in the Upper Taveng area of Virachey National Park near the Vietnam border. Planning for field reconnaissance, in both areas, during the coming dry season, is under way with national, provincial and district officials, as well as local guides. If the presence of Kouprey is confirmed, SSC/IUCN will be notified, and an emergency action plan will be recommended to save the Kouprey.